OMAN

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT TOPOGRAPHY CLIMATE FLORA AND FAUNA ENVIRONMENT POPULATION MIGRATION ETHNIC GROUPS LANGUAGES RELIGIONS TRANSPORTATION HISTORY GOVERNMENT POLITICAL PARTIES LOCAL GOVERNMENT JUDICIAL SYSTEM ARMED FORCES INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION ECONOMY INCOME LABOR AGRICULTURE ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FISHING FORESTRY MINING ENERGY AND POWER INDUSTRY SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DOMESTIC TRADE FOREIGN TRADE BALANCE OF PAYMENTS BANKING AND SECURITIES INSURANCE PUBLIC FINANCE TAXATION CUSTOMS AND DUTIES FOREIGN INVESTMENT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT HEALTH HOUSING EDUCATION LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS MEDIA ORGANIZATIONS TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION FAMOUS OMANIS DEPENDENCIES BIBLIOGRAPHY Sultanate of Oman Saltanat 'Uman CAPITAL: Muscat (Masqat) FLAG: The flag is red with a broad stripe of white at the upper fly and green at the lower fly. In the upper left corner, white crossed swords overlay a ceremonial dagger. ANTHEM: Nashid as-Salaam as-Sutani (Sultan's National Anthem). MONETARY UNIT: The Omani riyal (ro), established in November 1972, is a paper currency of 1,000 baizas. There are coins of 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 baizas, and notes of 100, 250, and 500 baizas (the last two being replaced by coins) and 1, 5, 10, 20, and 50 riyals. ro1 = $2.56410 (or $1 = ro0.39) as of 2005. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system was adopted on 15 November 1974. The imperial and local system also are used. HOLIDAYS: Accession of the Sultan, 23 July; National Day, 18 November; Sultan's Birthday, 19 November. Movable Muslim religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', and Milad an-Nabi. TIME: 4 pm = noon GMT. Solar time also is observed.

LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT

The Sultanate of Oman is the second-largest country after Saudi Arabia on the Arabian Peninsula, with an area officially estimated at 212,460 sq km (82,031 sq mi). Comparatively, the area occupied by Oman is slightly smaller than the state of Kansas. Oman's territory includes the tip of the strategically important Ra's Musandam, which juts into the Strait of Hormuz. Oman's part of the peninsula is separated from the rest of the country by the territory of the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Oman proper extends 972 km (604 mi) ne–sw and 513 km (319 mi) se–nw. It is bordered on the n by the Strait of Hormuz, on the ne by the Gulf of Oman, on the e and s by the Arabian Sea, on the sw by the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (PDRY), on the w by the Ar-Rub' al-Khali (Empty Quarter) and Saudi Arabia, and on the nw by the United Arab Emirates. The total estimated boundary length is 3,466 km (2,154 mi), of which 2,092 km (1,300 mi) is coastline.

TOPOGRAPHY

Physically, Oman, except for the Dhofar (Zufar) region, consists of three divisions: a coastal plain, a mountain range, and a plateau. The coastal plain varies in width from 16 km (10 mi) to practically nothing near Muscat, where the hills descend abruptly to the sea. The highest point, Jabal Shams, is at 2,980 meters (9,777 ft) in the Al Jabal range of the north. The plateau has an average height of about 300 m (1,000 ft) and is mostly stony and waterless, extending to the sands of the Ar-Rub' al-Khali. The coastline southward to Dhofar is barren and forbidding. From Salalah, a semicircular fertile plain extends to the foot of a steep line of hills, some 1,500 m (4,920 ft) high, and forms the edge of a stony plateau also extending to the sands of the Empty Quarter.

CLIMATE

Annual rainfall in Muscat averages 10 cm (4 in), falling mostly in January. Dhofar is subject to the southwest monsoon, and rainfall up to 64 cm (25 in) has been recorded in the rainy season from late June to October. While the mountain areas receive more plentiful rainfall, some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of Masirah, sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate generally is very hot, with temperatures reaching 54°c (129°f) in the hot season, from May to October.

FLORA AND FAUNA

Desert shrub and desert grass, common to southern Arabia, are found. Vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which is largely gravel desert. The greater rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant. Coconut palms grow plentifully in Dhofar and frankincense grows in the hills. Oleander and varieties of acacia abound. Indigenous mammals include the cheetah, hyena, fox, wolf, and hare. Birds include the Arabian see-see partridge, redleg chukor partridge, and Muscat bee eater. As of 2002, there were at least 56 species of mammals, 109 species of birds, and over 1,200 species of plants throughout the country.

ENVIRONMENT

Maintaining an adequate supply of water for agricultural and domestic use is Oman's most pressing environmental problem. The nation has only one cubic kilometer of renewable water resources, with 94% of annual withdrawals used in farming and 2% for industrial activity. Both drought and limited rainfall contribute to shortages in the nation's water supply. The nation's soil has shown increased levels of salinity. Pollution of beaches and other coastal areas by oil tanker traffic through the Strait of Hormuz and Gulf of Oman is also a persistent problem. In 2003, about 14% of the total land area was protected, According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 12 types of mammals, 14 species of birds, 4 types of reptiles, 18 species of fish, 1 species of invertebrate, and 6 species of plants. Decrees have been passed to protect endangered species, which include the South Arabian leopard, mountain gazelle, goitered gazelle, Arabian tahr, green sea turtle, hawksbill turtle, and olive turtle. The Arabian Oryx Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

POPULATION

The population of Oman in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 2,436,000, which placed it at number 137 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 33% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 128 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 1.8%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 2,984,000. The population density was 12 per sq km (30 per sq mi), with the greatest concentrations around Muscat and on the Batinah coast; together, these two regions have more than half the population. The UN estimated that 76% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 3.27%. The capital city, Muscat (Masqat), had a population of 638,000 in that year. Salalah is the principal town of the south.

MIGRATION

There is frequent movement of workers between Oman and neighboring states. In 2000 there were 682,000 migrants living in Oman, primarily foreign laborers. In 2001, foreigners were nearly 25% of the labor force. Oman declared that, by the end of 2003, cashiers, drivers, security officers, and workers in retail stores and supermarkets must be Omanis. By 2007 restaurants catering mainly to tourists would also be Omanized. In 2004, there were 7 refugees and 24 asylum seekers. The net migration rate was an estimated 0.31 migrants per 1,000 population in 2005.

ETHNIC GROUPS

The indigenous population is predominantly Arab except on the Batinah coast, where there is significant Baluchi, Iranian, and African representation, and in Muscat and Matrah, where there are Khojas and other Indians, Baluchis, and Pakistanis. Tribal groups are estimated to number over 200.

LANGUAGES

The official language is Arabic. Urdu, Baluchi, and several Indian dialects are also spoken, especially in the cities of Muscat and Matrah. English is taught as a second language.

RELIGIONS

The state religion is Islam, with most of the population adhering to the Ibadhi or Sunni sects. Tribes in the north are mainly Sunni Muslims of the Hanbali, Shafai, and Wahhabi rites. A minority of the population is Shia Muslim. There is a small community of Indian Hindu citizens and there is reportedly a very small number of Christians. Non-Muslims, the majority of whom are noncitizen immigrant workers from South Asia, are free to worship at churches and temples, some of which are built on land donated by the Sultan. The Basic Statute of the State allows for the freedom to practice religious rites as long as these rites do not breach public order. In practice, the government has reserved the right to place some restrictions on non-Muslim faiths. Non-Muslims may not proselytize to Muslims and non-Muslim groups may not publish religious materials within the country. Certain Muslim holidays are celebrated as national holidays.

TRANSPORTATION

As of 2002, there were 32,800 km (20,382 mi) of roadways, of which only 9,840 km (6,115 mi) were paved, including 550 km (342 mi) of expressways. A major 800-km (500-mi) highway links Nazwa in the north to Thamarit and Salalah in the Dhofar region. A main coastal road has been laid from Muscat to Suhar, a distance of 240 km (150 mi), and the road from Muscat to Buraymi on the United Arab Emirates border has been completed. In 2003, there were 266,325 passenger cars and 113,370 commercial vehicles registered. There are no railways or waterways in Oman. In 2004, there were an estimated 136 airports. As of 2005, a total of six had paved runways, and there was also one heliport. Seeb International Airport, 30 km (19 mi) northwest of Muscat, is served by numerous international carriers, including Gulf Air, in which Oman holds a 20% interest. A second modern airport, at Salalah in the south, serves domestic flights. In 2003, about 2.777 million passengers were carried on scheduled international and domestic airline flights. Mina's Qabus, near Muscat, is the main port in the north, serving international and regional shipping. Port Salalah, 1000 km (621 mi) down the cost from Muscat is the main port for the south. Opened in 1998, Port Salalah is the only port between Europe and Singapore that can accommodate the S-class ships, the world's largest class of container vessel. It is now among the top 20 container ports in the world in terms of handling capacity, and among the top 10 in terms of efficiency. All Omani crude oil is exported from Mina's al-Fahl, west of Matrah. In 2005, Oman had one merchant vessel (a passenger ship) of 1,000 GRT or more, totaling 15,430 GRT.

HISTORY

Oman's history can be traced to very early times. In Genesis 10:26–30, the descendants of Joktan are said to have migrated as far as Sephar (now Dhofar). The area was already a commercial and seafaring center in Sumerian times, and Phoenicians probably visited the coastal region. Other groups that probably came to the area in ancient times include the Baida and Ariba, Semitic tribes from northern Arabia, now extinct; the first Himyar dynasty from Yemen, which fell to the Persians in the time of Cyrus, about 550 bc; ancient Greek navigators; and the Parthians (174–136 bc). The entire population was converted to Islam during the lifetime of Muhammad, but Oman soon became—and remains today—the center of the Ibadhi sect, which maintained that any pious Muslim could become caliph or imam and that the imam should be elected. Omani tribes have elected their imams since the second half of the 8th century. The first prolonged contact with Europe came in 1507–08, when the Portuguese overran Muscat. They maintained control until they were driven out with Persian aid in 1649. During the next 75 years, Oman conquered Mombasa, Mogadishu, the island of Zanzibar, and the Portuguese possessions in East Africa. Later it held parts of what are now Iran and Pakistan. The first sultanate was established in Muscat about 1775. In 1798, Britain concluded its first treaty with Muscat. Sa'id bin Sultan (r.1804–56) became dependent on British support, and after his death his sons quarreled over his succession (the basic Ibadhi tenet having been rejected). Thus weakened by political division, Muscat lost control of the interior. In 1920, the Treaty of Seeb was signed between the sultan of Muscat and the imam of Oman, acknowledging the autonomy of the imamate of Oman under the sovereignty of the Sultan. From 1920 to 1954 there was comparative peace. On the death of the imam in 1954, Sultan Sa'id bin Taymur moved to succeed him. That year, Sa'id concluded a new agreement with Petroleum Development (Oman) Ltd., a British-managed oil company that had the oil concession for Oman. By this agreement, the company maintained a small army, the Muscat and Oman Field Force (MOFF), raised and led by the British. In early 1955, it subdued the area up to and including the town of 'Ibri. When British troops took Buraymi, MOFF occupied the rest of Oman and expelled the rebellious new imam. By 1959 when the last of the insurgents supporting the imam were defeated, the sultan voided the office and declared the Treaty of Seeb terminated. The imam, exiled in Saudi Arabia, tried in vain to muster Arab support for his return. Under the terms of the Anglo-French Declaration of 10 March 1962, the sultanate of Muscat was proclaimed an independent and sovereign state. Certain Arab states charged, however, that the United Kingdom was maintaining a colonial presence in the former imamate of Oman. In 1965 and repeatedly thereafter, the UN called unsuccessfully for the elimination of the British presence. Oman joined the UN late in 1971. Meanwhile, as early as 1964, a tribal rebellion had been brewing in the Dhofar region. The rebel tribes, organized as the Dhofar Liberation Front and aided by South Yemen, later joined forces with the Marxist Popular Front for the Liberation of Oman and the Arab Gulf. The insurgency was suppressed in 1975 with direct military assistance from Jordan and Iran. A treaty with Yemen defining the border was ratified in 1992. Qaboos bin Sa'id ousted his father, Sa'id bin Taymur, on 23 July 1970 and has ruled as sultan since that time. He immediately changed the name of the country from Muscat and Oman to the Sultanate of Oman and has presided over an extensive modernization program, easing his father's harsh restrictions and opening the country to the outside world, while preserving political and military ties with the British. Oman has been a proponent of cooperation among the Gulf States. A member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), it has also sought to keep good relations with Iran. Because Oman dominates the Strait of Hormuz, which links the Gulf of Oman with the Persian Gulf, its strategic importance drew it and the United States closer together with the start of the Iran–Iraq war in 1979. Under the terms of a pact signed in 1980, US military personnel and ships have been given access to Omani military and naval bases and are permitted to preposition military material for use in contingencies. Oman pursues a moderate, independent foreign policy. Unlike most Arab states, it supported the Camp David accords and did not break relations with Egypt following its peace treaty with Israel. Similarly, during the Gulf War, Oman sent forces to Saudi Arabia and granted strategic facilities to the United States, but did not sever diplomatic relations with Iraq during the conflict. In 1994 reports began appearing of arrests of critics of the Omani government. It was estimated that the Omani government detained nearly 500 such critics with points of view ranging from the Arab nationalist Ba'th movement to Islamists supporting the Sunni Muslim Brotherhood. Through 1995 Oman was considered as having "graduated" from the ranks of under-developed nations needing World Bank loans. Its ambitious economic goals included a 10-year plan for cultivating tourism and plans to improve its infrastructure, including water desalinization. However, in 1998, the economy was adversely affected when the price of oil dropped below $10 per barrel, a 25-year low. Oman agreed with the Organization of Oil Exporting Countries (OPEC), of which Oman is not a member, to reduce global oil production by 2.1 million barrels of crude per day until April 2000 in the hope of raising oil prices to $18 per barrel. In October 1999, the Omani oil minister recommended extending oil production cuts beyond the date originally proposed. Meanwhile, Oman has sought to diversify its economic base and ease its dependence on oil. A gas liquefaction plant at Sur was slated for completion in 2000. As of 1999, Oman held to a middle-of-the-road stance of conciliation and compromise in Middle Eastern politics. In January 1999, Oman's foreign minister met with his counterparts from Egypt, Saudi Arabia, Syria, and Yemen at a closed meeting in Cairo to forge a position on the question of Iraq. Also in 1999, Oman's sultan, Qaboos bin Sa'id, signed an agreement with the president of the United Arab Emirates defining the borders between Oman and the emirate of Abu Dhabi. In October 2001, extensive Omani-British military exercises in the Omani desert coincided with the launch of strikes against the Taliban in Afghanistan. During 2002 and into 2003, Oman, along with the other countries of the Persian Gulf, was confronted with the situation of a potential US-led war with Iraq. On 8 November 2002, the UN Security Council unanimously passed Resolution 1441, calling on Iraq to immediately disarm itself of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and WMD weapons capabilities, to allow the immediate return of International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and UN weapons inspectors, and to comply with all previous UN resolutions regarding the country since the end of the Gulf War in 1991. If Iraq was found to be in "material breach" of the resolution, "serious consequences" were to result. The United States and the United Kingdom began amassing troops in the region, and by the end of February 2003, the number of troops in the Persian Gulf was approximately 200,000. As of 1 February, there were 3,600 US military personnel, 100 elite British special forces, and approximately 40 aircraft in Oman. As well, a new airbase was under construction, which would have a 14,000-ft. runway. However, Oman has said it would not act in a conflict with Iraq without UN approval. Oman's borders with all its neighbors have been demarcated. A 2002 demarcation of the Oman-UAE border was ratified in 2003, including Oman's Musandam Peninsula and Al Madhah exclave, but details were not made public. At an Arab League summit held at Sharm el-Sheik, Egypt, on 1 March 2003, sharp divisions between Arab leaders on the Iraq situation emerged, particularly between Libya and Saudi Arabia. However, the leaders issued a declaration expressing "complete rejection of any aggression on Iraq," and called for continuing UN weapons inspections. It also called upon Iraq to disarm itself of WMD and the missiles needed to deliver them. At the summit, some leaders argued war was inevitable and that the countries of the region should prepare for its aftermath; some argued that war could be avoided if Iraq were to comply with weapons inspections; and a third group argued that the summit should issue an unequivocal antiwar declaration. Since 2000 the Omani government promoted an "Omanisation" campaign to ensure jobs for citizens, to promote self-reliance in human resources, and also to reduce dependence on expatriates. Expatriates with valid work permits in the private sector were replaced or left jobs, over 130,000 between January 2003 and July 2005. This policy also resulted in the massive repatriation of guest workers whose employment visas had expired. In May 2005 two cargo ferries carrying 1,018 Pakistanis were deported from Oman, some 40,000 Pakistanis having been deported from Oman between 2003 and 2005. In August 2005 undocumented or overstaying Filipinos in Oman were urged to return to the Philippines because of the sultanate's impending crackdown on undesirable foreigners. In October 2005 special arrangements were made for 5,700 Indian overstayers to exit Oman. In March 2004 the Sultan appointed Oman's first female minister with portfolio and added two more women to the cabinet by year's end. These appointments were a clear indication that the government was leading by example and that the participation of women in national life was a priority. In addition, the most capable people available filled government positions. In October 2005, a free trade agreement with the United States was finalized.